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<td valign="top" width="617"> <p style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0"><font face="黑体" size="4"><b> Chapter Four English Literature of the Seventeenth Century</b></font></p> <p style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0"> </p> <p align="justify" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0"><font face="黑体"> <b>I. John Milton (1609-1674)</b></font><font face="Times New Roman"><br> </font><i><b><font size="2" face="华文新魏">1. Life</font></b></i><font face="Times New Roman"><br> <img border="0" src="http://media4.open.com.cn/l603/dongshi/yingmeiwx/ying/4/img/John_Milton.jpg" align="left" width="133" height="181"> John Milton was born on Bread Street in central London on 9 December 1609. He was educated at St. Paul's School, where he was a deeply serious student. In 1625 Milton was admitted to Christ’s College of <font size="3" face="Times New Roman">Cambridge University</font>, from which he received a bachelor’s degree in 1629 and a master’s degree in 1632. Ordinarily, these degrees would have prepared their holder for ordination in the Church of England, but Milton held back from that commitment for dislike over the direction in which this institution seemed to be heading. For the next six years, instead, he resided with his parents, continuing his educational program, which amounted to reading virtually everything every written in the western languages. In 1638 he undertook a tour of the continent, where, particularly in Italy, he made the acquaintance of major European intellectuals. <br> Upon his return to England Milton threw himself into the
讯享网disputes of the time, taking the side of the Parliament against the assertion of monarchical rights made by <font size="3" face="Times New Roman">Charles I</font> , and writing numerous pamphlets for this cause. He married in 1642, but his wife Mary Powell soon thereafter returned to her Royalist family home. She returned to her husband in 1645, the year in which Milton established himself as a poet with publication of his <i>Poems</i>. From this point forward, however, the stresses of the Civil War occupied Milton’s mind. With the capture and public execution of Charles I in 1649, a Commonwealth was formed in which Milton took the position of Secretary for Foreign Tongues to the Council of State, in effect the Secretary of State to the republican regime led by Oliver Cromwell. Milton held that position through the life of the Commonwealth, sacrificing his poetic career and his eyesight in the process. His first wife died in 1652; he married Katherine Woodstock in 1656, but she also died two years afterwards. Later in 1658 Cromwell too died, leaving Milton in both personal and public shock. With the collapse of the Commonwealth Milton’s political position became truly precarious, and he was forced into hiding for over a year before he was discovered and imprisoned. He was saved by the intercession of major cultural figures, including Andrew Marvell. With the restoration of <font size="3" face="Times New Roman">Charles II</font> in 1660, Milton thereafter prudently devoted himself to his poetry.<i> Paradise Lost </i>was published in 1667, followed by <i>Paradise Regained </i>and<i> Samson Agonistes </i>in 1671. In the summer of 1674 Milton published a second edition of Paradise Lost. restructured from its original ten books to the twelve books we read today. On November 12 of that year he died in London<br> <br> </font><i><b><font face="Times New Roman">2. Literary Career</font></b></i><font face="Times New Roman"><br> Milton’s literary career could be divided into three
periods. The first period ended in 1641, during which he wrote his early masterpieces “ L’Allegro” and “Il Penseroso” (1632). These poems that were written at Harton shaved him a true offspring of the Renaissance and a scholar of exquisite taste and rare culture. He then wrote a masque <i>Comus</i> in which his idea of <font size="3" face="Times New Roman">Puritanism</font> appeared. He also published an elegy “Lycidas” to mourn for his dead classmate, Edward King. This elegy was written in classical pastoral form with many allusions. Lycidas that was a god’s name was referred to Edward King.<br> From 1641 to 1654 is his second period, during which the
讯享网Revolution progressed like a raging fire and the Puritan was in a complete ascendancy. In 1641 he began to write pamphlets to defend the Revolution. He sacrificed his poetic ambition to the call of the liberty for which Puritans were fighting. There were many forceful political essays and pamphlets, such as <i>The Reason of Church Government </i>(1642)<i>, Education </i>(1644)<i>, Areopagitica </i>(1644)<i>, The Defence of the English People</i> (1651)<i>, The Second Defence of the English People </i>(1654) etc. In these pamphlets, Milton either argued for religious and press freedom and against the authority of the bishops in church government, or defended the Commonwealth and aroused people’s patriotism.<br> The third period is from 1655 to 1671, which is usually
considered as the greatest in his literary life. He wrote two epics <i> Paradise Lost</i> (1665), <i>Paradise Regained</i> (1667), and a tragedy <i> Samson Agonistes</i> (1671), together with some notable sonnets, such as, “To Mr. Cyriack Skinner Upon His Blindness”, “On His Deceased Wife” (1658). The two epics and the tragedy that were more important all drew their subject matter from the Bible. Although Milton was under persecution after Restoration, these works demonstrated his firm fighting spirit for freedom and against tyranny. We could find humanism and Puritanism merged magnificently in these works that were written in exquisite marvelous skills.</font></p> </td>
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<td valign="top" width="617"> <p align="justify" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0"><i><b> <font size="2" face="华文新魏">2. Major Works </font></b></i><br> <i><b><font size="2">Paradise Lost</font></b></i><br> <img border="0" src="http://media4.open.com.cn/l603/dongshi/yingmeiwx/ying/4/img/paradise%20lost.jpg" align="left"><font face="Times New Roman"> For many years Milton had planned to write an epic poem, and he probably started his work on <i>Paradise Lost</i> before the Restoration. The blank-verse poem in ten books appeared in 1667; a second edition, in which Milton reorganized the original ten books into twelve, appeared in 1674. It was greatly admired by Milton’s contemporaries and has since then been considered the greatest epic poem in the English language. In telling the story of <font size="3" face="Times New Roman">Satan</font>’s rebellion against God and the story of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, Milton attempted to explain the evil in this world and, in his own words, to “justify the ways of God to man.”<br> Planned in 1640, the epic was not finished until
讯享网1665. In his total blindness, Milton had to dictate to other people who noted it down. For<i> Paradise Lost</i>, Milton received 5 pounds as the initial payment and 5 pounds additional on the sale of the first three editions. Milton’ s widow finally settled all claims on the publication for 8 pounds, making a total of 18 pounds. <i>Paradise Lost</i> is about Adam and Eve--how they came to be created and how they came to lose their place in the Garden of Eden. It’s the same story you find in the first<br> Chapter of pages of Genesis, expanded by Milton into a
very long, detailed, narrative poem. It also includes the story of the origin of Satan. Originally, he was called Lucifer, an angel in heaven who led his followers in a war against God, and was ultimately sent with them to hell. Thirst for revenge led him to cause man's downfall by turning into a serpent and tempting Eve to eat the forbidden fruit.<br> The story opens in hell, where Satan and his followers
讯享网are recovering from defeat in a war they waged against God. They build a palace, called Pandemonium, where they hold council to determine whether or not to return to battle. Instead they decide to explore a new world prophecied to be created, where a safer course of revenge can be planned. Satan undertakes the mission alone. At the gate of hell, he meets his offspring, Sin and Death, who unbar the gates for him. He journeys across chaos till he sees the new universe floating near the larger globe which is heaven. God sees Satan flying towards this world and foretells the fall of man. His Son, who sits at his right hand, offers to sacrifice himself for man's salvation. Meanwhile, Satan enters the new universe. He flies to the sun, where he tricks an angel, Uriel, into showing him the way to man's home. <br> Satan gains entrance into the Garden of Eden, where he finds
Adam and Eve and becomes jealous of them. He overhears them speak of God's commandment that they should not eat the forbidden fruit. Uriel warns Gabriel and his angels, who are guarding the gate of Paradise, of Satan's presence. Satan is apprehended by them and banished from Eden. God sends Raphael to warn Adam and Eve about Satan. Raphael recounts to them how jealousy against the Son of God led a once favored angel to wage war against God in heaven, and how the Son, Messiah, cast him and his followers into hell. He relates how the world was created so mankind could one day replace the fallen angels in heaven. <br> Satan returns to earth, and enters a serpent. Finding Eve
讯享网alone he induces her to eat the fruit of the forbidden tree. Adam, resigned to join in her fate, eats also. Their innocence is lost and they become aware of their nakedness. In shame and despair, they become hostile to each other. The Son of God descends to earth to judge the sinners, mercifully delaying their sentence of death. Sin and Death, sensing Satan's success, build a highway to earth, their new home. Upon his return to hell, instead of a celebration of victory, Satan and his crew are turned into serpents as punishment. Adam reconciles with Eve. God sends Michael to expel the pair from Paradise, but first to reveal to Adam future events resulting from his sin. Adam is saddened by these visions, but ultimately revived by revelations of the future coming of the Savior of mankind. In sadness, mitigated with hope, Adam and Eve are sent away from the Garden of Paradise<br> The epic poem, from its very inception, was a mixture of
genres. Homer joins epic and tragedy in the Iliad, and epic and romance in the Odyssey. Virgil's epic is also a "history," and Dante's epic is also a "comedy." The Renaissance epic is distinguished by its fusion of genres--epic and romance in Boiardo, <font size="3" face="Times New Roman">Ariosto</font>, and Tasso; and epic, romance, and pastoral in Spenser and Sidney. Milton's epic [Paradise Lost] is even larger in its compass, subsuming all the genres, small and large. Eve's love song in the fourth book is recognizable as an irregular sonnet, and the morning hymn of the fifth book as a well-formed ode. The speeches of the devils in the second book are grotesque perversions of oratorical form. Still further, within Paradise Lost there is a large infusion of masque, romance, and comedic elements; and there is, besides, the mock-epic of the first two books and the brief epic of the last two; there are the pastoral books and the tragic ones. When Milton acknowledged the pre-eminence of epic, then, he did not merely endorse a critical commonplace; he acknowledged that epic was at the apex of all genres because, in potentiality at least, it contained them all.</font></p> </td>
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<td valign="top" width="617"><font face="Times New Roman"> As for the theme of this epic, in Milton’s own words, “assert Eternal Providence and to justify the ways of God to men”, that is, to tell the reason why God drives Adam and Eve out of the Garden of Eden. However, God is depicted like a tyranny, while Satan is lively and full of resources and courage. Milton eulogizes the rebellious spirit of Satan as well as the sincere love from Adam to Eve. To some extent, Milton unconsciously instills his firm fighting spirit into Satan and makes Satan server as his own mouthpiece, such as in the lines: <br>
讯享网What though the field be lost? <br>
All is not lost; the unconquerable Will, <br>
讯享网And study of revenge, immortal hate, <br>
And courage never to submit or yield: <br>
讯享网And what is else not to be overcome? <br>
That Glory never shall his wrath or might <br>
讯享网Extort from me. To bow and sue for grace <br>
With suppliant knee, and deifie his power <br>
讯享网Who from the terrour of this Arm so late <br>
Doubted his Empire, that were low indeed, <br>
讯享网That were an ignominy and shame beneath <br>
This downfall; since by Fate the strength of Gods <br>
讯享网And this Empyreal substance cannot fail, <br>
Since through experience of this great event <br>
讯享网In Arms not worse, in foresight much advanc't, <br>
We may with more successful hope resolve <br>
讯享网To wage by force or guile eternal Warr <br>
Irreconcileable, to our grand Foe, <br>
讯享网Who now triumphs, and in th' excess of joy <br>
Sole reigning holds the Tyranny of Heav'n.</font><p> <font face="Times New Roman"> <i>Paradise Lost</i> is always considered as one of the most important works in English literature. In this epic, Milton not only created a group of distinctive and lifelike characters, but also constructed it in a sublime and magnificent manner. There are many long and complex sentences. Usually a sentence is completed with several lines. Together with the employment of parallels, similes and allusions etc., the epic becomes more majestic yet more difficult to understand<br> Milton is an anti-mimetic poet, like the Romantic poets
讯享网whom he served as a model; and thus he is less interested in the "action" of men than in the "drama" of the mind. One effect of assuming the conventions of multiple forms, and of then belittling them as Milton does in Paradise Lost, is to deny the poet (both himself and his successors) the structural support that generic conventions lend. Paradise Lost is a reassessment of all the genres it subsumes, and that reassessment involves an alteration, a perfection, of their ideologies, accompanied by a repudiation of their usual structures. Biblical prophecy--most notably Revelation prophecy--provides Milton with an alternative structure (or structures) and simultaneously enables him to intensify the dramatic element in his epics.<br> In terms of ideology, Paradise Lost expresses
the poet's radicalism not only in its rejection of epic structure but in its inversion of the hierarchy of styles: the plain style is assigned to God, the grand one to Satan. In the process Milton fractures the customary relationship between poet and audience. Though the epic poet often asserted artistic superiority over his audience, he seldom asserted moral authority over it; and this is because he took the values he celebrated from the audience he was addressing. Milton, however, claims both artistic and moral superiority, thereby making the poet the generator of the values by which a whole culture is asked to live.</font></p> </td>
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<td valign="top" width="617"> <p align="justify" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; "><i><b> <font size="2">Samson Agonistes</font></b></i><br> <font face="Times New Roman"> <img border="0" src="http://media4.open.com.cn/l603/dongshi/yingmeiwx/ying/4/img/samson.jpg" align="left" width="149" height="132"> <i> Samson Agonistes</i>, the last work of Milton, is a poetic drama that is written in blank verse and modeled on Greek tragedy. It was written like a “closet drama” which is for reading rather than for performing a stage, because there is not too much plot structure and character development. The story is also taken from the <i>Book of Judges</i> in the Old Testament.<br> Samson Agonistes (meaning “Samson the Athlete”) is chosen by
讯享网God to help Israelites extricate from the oppression of <font size="3" face="Times New Roman">Philistines</font>. With his invincible physical strength that comes from his long hair, he swept away his enemies and became the champion for the freedom of his nation. However, he divulges the secret of his great physical strength to his wife, Dalila, who betrays him. The Philistines shave his hair and blind his eyes when Samson is sleeping. Samson loses his great power and is kept as slave. In prison, he is visited several times. His father, Manoah, visited hem and tried to ransom him. Though his wife is seriously accused by Samson, she still wants him to surrender to Philistines. Harapha, who represents brute force with scorn for Samson, challenges Samson but fails. Then an officer comes to order Samson to provide amusement for the Philistine lords, who are celebrating a feast on honor of their heathen god Dagon. In the place of celebrating, Samson pulls down the pillars that support the roof and kills all his enemies as well as himself.<br> This tragedy is like the autobiography of Milton, because
Samson experiences what Milton suffered, such as, unwise marriage, blindness, failure, depression and trap by enemies, and also is full of Milton’s irresistible fighting spirit. Samson’s lamentation over his blindness is the right voice of Milton to himself.<br>
讯享网O dark, dark, dark, amid the blaze of noon;<br>
Irrecoverably dark, total eclipse<br>
讯享网Without all hope of day!<br>
…<br>
讯享网The sun to me is dark<br>
And silent as the moon, when she deserts the night <br>
讯享网Hid in her vacant interlunar cave. <br>
…<br>
讯享网As in the land of darkness, ye in light,<br>
To live a life half dead, a living death, <br>
讯享网And buried; but O yet more miserable!<br> The whole tragedy consists of 1758 lines without division of
acts. With the employment of chorus, the messenger, little description of external action but much of internal conflict, the drama is solemn and stirring, which also exactly fits the thoughts and moods of Milton.<br> In writing Samson Agonistes Milton deliberately
讯享网patterned after ancient Greek models, adhered strictly to the unities of time, place, and action, employed chorus and messenger, expressed an undeviating tragic tone and exalted language. At the same time Aristotelian concept of catharsis was purposely introduced: pity and fear aroused are a purgative for unwholesome passions. Concluding chorus explicitly illustrates this purpose. Tragic flaw (overconfidence) of Greeks is applied to Samson, but Milton's insistence on Divine Providence instead of Blind Fate ruling men's lives requires a Christian rather than a pagan interpretation. <br> Milton, a Christian humanist, attempts to synthesize classic,
Hebraic, and Christian traditions. The autobiographical element is obvious. Like the blind Samson, Milton had thrown himself into a national effort [the Commonwealth], only to witness his own devastating loss and the triumph of a culture he detested [when Charles II was restored to the throne]. Recovering from previous despair, Samson is subjected to two temptations: (1) to blame God for his blindness and slavery, and (2) to seek to decide his own fate. In the end, God's purpose is revealed, and Samson triumphantly and righteously proceeds to his divinely ordained destiny. Though undivided, the drama unfolds in five sections or acts, patterned after the Greek tragedy.<br> </font><i><b><font size="2" face="华文新魏">4 Features of Style</font></b></i><font face="Times New Roman"><br> 4.1. Milton wrote many different types of verse, such as, sonnets, lyrics, elegies, epics, masques, and verse tragedies. Milton is especially a great master of blank verse. He is the first who used blank verse in non-dramatic works. He also learned a lot from Shakespeare whose verse pattern is different from his, that is, while everybody is a potential audience of Shakespeare only the intellectual cultivated will love Milton. <br> 4.2. Milton is a progressive and prominent figure both in politics and arts. He persistently fought for freedom against tyranny in all fields of human activity: political, social and religious. His poignant thought and fiery ideas are usually expressed with powerful language and vivid characters, such as Satan and Samson. <br> 4.3.His Puritanism and his republicanism are the most essential ideas in his mind, which can be found in all his works of importance. During the Republican Age, Milton’s forceful pamphlets advocated and supported Commonwealth. In the Restoration Period, he also showed his firm and rebellious spirit in his great works.<br> 4.4.Milton is a great stylist. He is famous for his grand style noted for its dignity and polish, which is the result of his life-long classical and biblical study. But his style is never exactly natural. It is restrained by definite and obvious rhetorical devices.<br> 4.5.Milton has always been admired for his sublimity of thought and majesty of expression. But the study of Milton is not and easy job for beginners of literature because of his long sentences and complicated grammatical construction. In order to appreciate Milton to the fullest, it is also necessary to know and understand the biblical stories that he often referred to.<br> Milton’s learning and education are greater than that of any other English poet on record. No matter in the field of poetry or prose, Milton got more achievement than all other English writers of his time both in his revolutionary and humanist views and artistic skills. He has greatly influenced the later poets, including Dryden, Pope, Gray, Wordsworth, Shelley, Tennyson, etc.</font></p> <p align="justify" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0"> <img border="0" src="http://media4.open.com.cn/l603/dongshi/yingmeiwx/ying/img/logo3.gif" width="507" height="24"></p> </td>
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<td valign="top" width="617"> <p style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0" align="justify"><font face="黑体"> <b>Ⅱ. John Bunyan (1628-1688)</b></font><br> <i><b><font size="2" face="华文新魏">1 Life</font></b></i><br> <font face="Times New Roman"> <img border="0" src="http://media4.open.com.cn/l603/dongshi/yingmeiwx/ying/4/img/bunyan.jpg" align="left"> Although Bunyan chiefly wrote during the Restoration period, he still belongs to the Puritan Age because of his strong Puritanism.<br> John Bunyan, one of the most popular religious writers of any
讯享网age, was born at Elstow, near Bedford, in 1628. He was brought up to his father's trade of tinker, and spent his youth in the practice of that humble craft, of which his name alone now serves to lessen somewhat the disrepute. It has generally been taken for granted that his early life was very loose and profligate, on the sole ground of his terrible self accusations in after years, when from the height of religious fervor and puritan strictness, he looked back on dancing and bell ringing as sins. In his 16th or 17th year, he enlisted in the Parliamentary army, and in 1645 was present at the siege of Leicester, where he escaped death by the substitution of a comrade in his place as sentry. Nothing further is known of his military career. After leaving the army, he married, and soon after began to be visited by those terrible compunctions of conscience, and fits of doubt, sometimes passing into despair, which, with some quieter intervals, made his life for several years, a journey through the valley of humiliation, of which he afterwards gave so vivid a picture. Hope and peace came at last, and in 1655, Bunyan became a member of the Baptist congregation at Bedford. Soon after he was chosen its pastor, and for five years ministered with extraordinary diligence and success, his preaching generally attracting great crowds. The act against conventicles, passed on the Restoration, put a stop to his labors; he was convicted, and sentenced to perpetual banishment. In the meantime, he was committed to Bedford jail, where he spent the next twelve years of his life, supporting the wants of his wife and children by making tagged laces, and ministering to all posterity by writing the Pilgrim's Progress. His library consisted of a Bible and Foxes Martyrs. The kindly interposition of a high church Bishop, Dr. Barlow, of Lincoln, at length released him, and he at once resumed his work as a preacher, itinerating throughout the country. After the issuing of James II's declaration of liberty of conscience, he again settled at Bedford, and ministered to the Baptist congregation in Mill-lane till his death, at London, of fever, in 1688. Bunyan's whole works were published in 1736, in a two-volume folio. The most popular of them after the Pilgrim's Progress, are the Holy War - another <font size="3" face="Times New Roman">allegory</font>, much less successful - and Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, an autobiographical narrative. It is supposed that no other book, except the Bible, has gone through so many editions, and attained to so wide a popularity in all languages as The Pilgrim's Progress.<br> Bunyan mainly wrote four prose works, Grace Abouding to
the Chief of Sinners</i> (1666)<i>, The Pilgrim’s Progress </i>(1678),<i> The Life and Death of Mr. Badman</i> (1680), and <i>The Holy War</i> (1682).</font></p> </td>
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<td valign="top" width="617"> <p style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0" align="justify"><i><b> <font size="2">2. Pilgrim’s Progress </font></b></i><br> <font face="Times New Roman"> <img border="0" src="http://media4.open.com.cn/l603/dongshi/yingmeiwx/ying/4/img/pilgrim'a%20progress.jpg" align="left"> <i>Pilgrim’s Progress</i> is Bunyan’s masterpiece, and is generally agreed to be the most successful allegory in English literature. After publishing in 1678, the book won immediate popularity. About a hundred thousand books were sold within a year. Before his death ten editions had been sold. After William Thackeray named his novel with Vanity Fair, <i>Pilgrim’s Progress </i>became more influential. <br> The success of the book led the author to write a sequel. It
讯享网deals with the pilgrimage of Christian’s wife, children, and neighbors. But it is much inferior to the first book because Bunyan could not avoid repetition in plot and writing skill. This book was written for religious instructions in the form of allegory and dream. In his dream, the author sees Christian, the main Character, with a burden on his back is reading a book, the Bible. From the book, Christian learns that the city where he lives will be burned down with fire. After failing to convince his wife, children and neighbors of the coming danger, he decides to flee from the City of Destruction to the Celestial City. On the way he meets many pitfalls and hindrances, such as, the Slough of Despond, Hill of Difficulty, Valley of the Shadow of Death, Vanity Fair and River of Death, and with the help of many wise and firm men, such as, Mr. Evangelist, Faithful, and Hopeful, he finally arrives at the Celestial City.<br> This book is usually considered as a religious allegory. This
spirit reflects the sublime side of human nature. Furthermore, the allegory is like a novel because it is written with attractive stories and vivid characters. Last but not least, the book has realistic elements. Although the characters are not true, they reflect the features of English society in the 17th century as well as the moral and spiritual problems that obsessed common people at that time. The bypaths and short cuts through fields, the town fair, the hill, and the river in the book are real scenes in Bunyan’s life.<br> The most famous part of that book is the sixth chapter
讯享网“Vanity Fair”. It tells how Christian and his friend Faithful come to Vanity Fair on their way to Heaven, “a fair wherein should be sold all sorts of vanity, and that it should last all the year long; therefore at this fair all such merchandise sold, as houses, lands, trades, places, honours, preferments, titles, countries, kingdoms, lusts, pleasures, and delights of all sorts as harlots, wives, husbands, children, masters, servants, lives, blood, bodies, souls, silver, gold, pearls, precious stones and what not. ”As they refuse to buy anything but truth, they are beaten and put in a cage and then taken out and led in chains up and down the fair. They are sentenced to death -- to be put to the most cruel death that can be invented. Faithful is burned to death, but immediately after he is burned to death, he ascends to the Celestial City. By the help o f God, Christian, for the time being, escapes. Vanity Fair is a satirical picture of English society, law, and religion in Bunyan 's day. He might even be aiming at concrete situation or real persons.<br> In “Vanity Fair”, Bunyan criticized the money-seeking and
immoral capitalist society. There, everything, including honors, titles, kingdoms, pleasures, etc., except faith, can be sold and bought. Vanity Fair is a satirical picture of English society, law and religion in Bunyan’s day. The following part is the description of Vanity Fair.<br> </font><font size="2" face="Arial"> This Fair is no new-erected business, but a thing of ancient standing; I will shew you the original of it.<br> Almost five thousand years ago, there were Pilgrims walking to the Celestial City, as these two honest persons are; and Beelzebub, Apollyon, and Legion, with their Companions, perceiving by the path that the Pilgrims made, that their way to the City lay through this Town of Vanity, they contrived here to set up a Fair; a Fair wherein should be sold all sorts of Vanity, and that it should last all the year long: therefore at this Fair are all such Merchandize sold, as Houses, Lands, Trades, Places, Honours, Preferments, Titles, Countries, Kingdoms, Lusts, Pleasures, and Delights of all sorts, as Whores, Bawds, Wives, Husbands, Children, Masters, Servants, Lives, Blood, Bodies, Souls, Silver, Gold, Pearls, Precious Stones, and what not? And moreover, at this Fair there is at all times to be seen Jugglings, Cheats, Games, Plays, Folls, Apes, Knives, and Rogues, and that of every kind. Here are to be seen too, and that for nothing, Thefts, Murders, Adulteries, false-swearers, and that of a blood-red color.</font><font face="Times New Roman"><br> <br> Pilgrim’s Progress warns that a Christian in search of
讯享网salvation will meet m any difficulties -- that is to say, various kinds of temptation and trials. Only by steadfastness and faithfulness can he win the way to Heaven. In a more general sense, Christian can really be any man who struggles through life searching for goodness. The basic metaphor of the book is “Life is a journey.”<br> Like Milton, Bunyan is a well-known figure in the 17th
century English literature. While Milton voiced the Puritan ideals for the educated class, John Bunyan spoke for the common people.</font></p> <p style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0" align="justify"> <font face="Times New Roman"><br> </font><i><b><font size="2">3.Features of Bunyan's works</font></b></i><font face="Times New Roman"><br> Bunyan uses the simple, unaffected language of the
讯享网common people, as well as a simple, lively and vivid prose style, ennobled by the solemn dignity of the English Bible. Everyday idiomatic expressions are used naturally and forcefully. In his works we can also find carefully observed and vividly rendered details taken from ordinary circumstances of ordinary life.</font></p> </td>
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讯享网<td valign="top" width="617"> <p style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0" align="justify"><i><b> <font size="2" face="黑体">Ⅲ</font><font size="2" face="华文新魏">. Metaphysical Poets and Cavalier Poets</font></b></i><br> <b><i><font size="2">1. Metaphysical Poets and John Donne</font></i></b><br> <font face="Times New Roman"> A term used to group together certain 17th-century poets, usually Donne, Marvell, Vaughan and Traherne, though other figures like Abraham Cowley are sometimes included in the list. Although in no sense a school or movement proper, they share common characteristics of wit, inventiveness, and a love of elaborate stylistic manoeuvres.<br> Metaphysical concerns are the common subject of their poetry,
which investigates the world by rational discussion of its phenomena rather than by intuition or mysticism. Dryden was the first to apply the term to 17th-century poetry when, in 1693, he criticized Donne: He affects the Metaphysics in his amorous verses, where nature only should reign; and perplexes the minds of the fair sex with nice speculations of philosophy, when he should engage their hearts. He disapproved of Donne's stylistic excesses, particularly his extravagant conceits (or witty comparisons) and his tendency towards hyperbolic abstractions. Johnson consolidated the argument in <i>The Lives of the Poets</i>, where he noted (with reference to Cowley) that 'about the beginning of the seventeenth century appeared a race of writers that may be termed the metaphysical poets'. He went on to describe the far-fetched nature of their comparisons as 'a kind of discordia concors; a combination of dissimilar images, or discovery of occult resemblances in things apparently unlike'. Examples of the practice Johnson condemned would include the extended comparison of love with astrology (by Donne) and of the soul with a drop of dew (by Marvell).<br> Reacting against the deliberately smooth and sweet
讯享网tones of much 16th-century<br> verse, the metaphysical poets adopted a style that is energetic, uneven, and rigorous. (Johnson decried its roughness and violation of decorum, the deliberate mixture of different styles.) It has also been labelled the 'poetry of strong lines'. In his important essay, 'The Metaphysical Poets' (1921), which helped bring the poetry of Donne and his contemporaries back into favour, T. S. Eliot argued that their work fuses reason with passion; it shows a unification of thought and feeling which later became separated into a 'dissociation of sensibility'.” <br> The poets who belong to this group are: John Donne, George
Herbert, Andrew Marvell, Richard Crashaw, Henry Vaughan, Abraham Cowley, John Cleveland.</font></p> </td>
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<td valign="top" width="617"> <p align="justify" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; "> <font face="Times New Roman"> <img border="0" src="http://media4.open.com.cn/l603/dongshi/yingmeiwx/ying/4/img/donne.jpg" align="left" width="87" height="115"> John Donne (1572-1631) was born in a Catholic family in London. He first studied at <font size="3" face="Times New Roman">Oxford</font> (1584) and then at Cambridge (1587) and later studied law at Lincoln’s Inn in London (1592). He lived a unstrained and dissolute life in his youth. Because of a secret marriage to a noble lady, he was put into prison. After his release, Donne gave up his Catholic faith and became an Anglican. In 1621, he was appointed Dean of St. Paul’s by King James I.<br> He is the founder of Metaphysical Poetry. He liked using
讯享网conceit (an elaborate and surprising figure of speech, comparing two very dissimilar things.) which can startle the reader into seeing and knowing what he has not noticed before. Remarkable images, peculiar analogies, reason and emotion together with complex rhythms are merged together in his poetry. His poetry can be divided into two parts. The first part, written in his youth and early manhood, mainly consists of love poems. The second part contains chiefly divine poems and sermons written he took orders.<br> Donne’s love lyrics can also be divided into two groups. The poems of the first group take a negative view to love, while those of the second group were positive. In the poems of the first group, Donne gave up the conventional romantic ideas about love and poetic methods in the Elizabethan age. He did not passionately suggested sensual love. In the poem “Woman’s Constancy”, he directly criticized women’s inconstancy and the incredibility of women’s vows.<br>
Now thou hast loved me one who day,<br>
讯享网Tomorrow when thou leav’st, what wilt thou say?<br>
Wilt thou then antedate some new-made vow?<br>
讯享网Or say that now<br>
We are not just those persons which we were?<br> In the poems of the second group, he showed his
讯享网confidence to true love, and even sanctifies love as something holy. In the poem “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” (1611), the poet believes that if love combines soul together, this love is sublime and will not be affected by the far distance between lovers.<br>
But we by’a love so much refined<br>
讯享网That our selves know not what it is, <br>
Inter-assured of the mind,<br>
讯享网Careless, eyes, lips, and hands to miss.<br> <br>
Our two souls therefore, which are one,<br>
讯享网Though I must go, endure not yet<br>
A beach, but an expansion,<br>
讯享网Like gold to airy thinness beat.<br> The holy sonnets contain 19 sonnets, which shows the
suffering of human soul and the desire to find eternal peace. The most well-known one is “Death Be Not Proud”, which shows the poet’s religious view towards death, that is, death is not horrifying.<br>
讯享网Death, be not proud, though some have called thee<br>
Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so;<br>
讯享网For those whom thou think’st thou dost overthrow<br>
Die not, poor death, nor yet canst thou kill me.<br>
讯享网…<br>
One short sleep past, we wake eternally,<br>
讯享网And death shall be no more; death, thou shalt die.<br> Donne influenced a lot on his followers of the
metaphysical poets in the 17th century. He directly influenced George Herbert (1593-1633) who was a priest. Herbert was strongly influenced by his mother who was devoted herself to religion. His poems were collected into <i> The Temple</i> which was published in 1633 soon after his death. Just like Donne, Herbert employed quaint and ingenious imagery in his poems and showed the conflict between his earthly desires and religious duty. In poem “The Collar”, Herbert strongly voiced his desire at the beginning:<br>
讯享网I struck the board and cried, No more;<br>
I will abroad!<br>
讯享网What? Shall I ever sigh and pine<br>
My lines and life are free, free as the road,<br>
讯享网Loose as the wind, as large as stone.<br> At the end, God’s calling calmed him down.<br>
But as I raved and grew more fierce and wild<br>
讯享网At every word,<br>
Me thought I heard one calling, Child!<br>
讯享网And I replied, <i>My Lord</i>.<br> Donne influenced Herrick who also influenced two other
poets in his time, Richard Crashaw (1613?-1649) and Henry Vaughan (1621-1695). However, a more attractive figure in this Metaphysical School is Andrew Marvell (1621-1678). He was a puritan and served as Milton’s assistant in Latin Secretaryship when Milton was becoming blind. He was also on of the men who saved Milton from death.<br> Like Donne, Marvell liked using conceits, which could
讯享网be observed obviously in his poem “To His Coy Mistress”. However, Marvell also added the writing skill of classical writers which made his language not as rough and obscure as that of the Metaphysical poets. Thus, he is more acceptable by people.</font></p> <p align="justify" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0"> <img border="0" src="http://media4.open.com.cn/l603/dongshi/yingmeiwx/ying/img/logo3.gif" width="507" height="24"></p> </td>
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讯享网<td valign="top" width="617"> <p style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0" align="justify"><i><b> <font size="2">2. Cavalier Poets</font></b></i><br> <font face="Times New Roman"> The other group prevailing in this period was that of Cavalier poets. They were often courtiers and squires who stood on the side of the king against the Parliament and Puritans and called themselves “Sons of Ben Johnson”, because their verse was frequently written with classical finish in imitation of Johnson.<br> The Cavalier poets wrote light poetry, polished and elegant,
amorous and gay, but often superficial. Pessimism is their dominant spirit, for, under their light heartedness existed some foreboding of doom. Most of their verses were short songs, pretty madrigals, and love fancies characterized by lightness of heart and of morals. Cavalier poems have the limpidity of the Elizabethan lyric without its imaginative flights. They are lighter and neater but less fresh than the Elizabethan’s. The chief representatives of this group are: Robert Herrick, Thomas Carew, Sir John Suckling, Richard Lovelace, Edmund Waller, and William Davenant.<br> Robert
讯享网Herrick (1591-1674) was a Cambridge graduate and an Anglican clergyman. His poetry followed the <font size="3" face="Times New Roman">classicism</font> of Ben Johnson. Although less powerful, his poems were close to life and pleasant to ear. His chief work is <i> Hesperides</i>, a collection of 1200 poems and was published in 1648. To quote from one of his best known poems, “To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time”:<br>
The Age is best, which is the first,<br>
讯享网When Youth and Blood are warmer; <br>
But being spent, the worse, and worst<br>
讯享网Times, still succeed the former.<br> <br>
Then be not coy, but use your time;<br>
讯享网And while ye may, goe marry:<br>
For having lost but once your prime,<br>
讯享网You may forever tarry.<br> The motif of carpe diem (seize the day) is
evident in this poem.<br> Another member of Cavalier poets is Thomas Carew
讯享网(1594-1640). His short lyric “Persuasions to Joy: a Song” is very similar with Herrick’s “To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time” in purport, yet more witted in ending, “Thus either Time his sickle brings / In vain, or else in vain his wings”. Here “sickle” echoes to the first stanza, while “wings” echoes to the second stanza.<br> Although as a Cavalier poet, Carew highly praised Donne in
“An Elegy upon the Death of Dr. Donne, Dean of Paul’s”:<br>
讯享网Here lies a king that ruled, as he thought fit, <br>
The universal monarchy of wit ; <br>
讯享网Here lies two flamens, and both those the best : <br>
Apollo's first, at last the true God's priest. <br> 讯享网(1609-1641) and Richard Lovelace (1618-1657). John Suckling was well-known for his straightness. One of his masterpieces is “Why So Pale<img border="0" src="http://media4.open.com.cn/l603/dongshi/yingmeiwx/ying/4/img/suckling.jpg" align="right" width="100" height="126"> and Wan?”<br>
Why so pale and wan, fond lover? <br>
讯享网Prithee, why so pale?<br>
Will, when looking well can’t move her,<br>
讯享网Looking ill prevail?<br>
Prithee, why so pale?<br>
讯享网…<br>
Quit, quit for shame! This will not move;<br>
讯享网This cannot take her.<br>
If of herself she will not love, <br>
讯享网Nothing can make her:<br>
The devil take her!<br> The poem, ending in imprecation, has gone beyond the
讯享网limitation of a love song. In the period of Civil War, English poetry had lost the delightfulness of Spenser.<br> Compared with suckling, Richard Lovelace is more elegant. He
also wrote about Civil War. One of his masterpieces is “To Lucasta, On Going to the Wars”:<br>
讯享网True, a new mistress now I chase, <br>
The first for in the field; <br>
讯享网And with a stronger faith embrace<br>
A sword, a horse, a shield.<br> <br>
讯享网Yet this inconstancy is such<br>
As you to shall adore;<br>
讯享网I could not love thee, Dear, so much,<br>
Loved I not Honour more.<br> In the last two sentences, the poet connected love and
讯享网fame. This is the soul of the poem.</font></p> </td>
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讯享网<td valign="top" width="617"> <p align="justify" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0"><b> <font face="黑体">Ⅳ The Literature in the Restoration</font></b><br> <i><b><font size="2" face="华文新魏">1. The Restoration Drama</font></b></i><br> <font face="Times New Roman"> From1642 onward for eighteen years, the theaters of England remained nominally closed. There was of course evasion of the law; but whatever performances were offered had to be given in secrecy, before small companies in private houses, or in taverns located three or four miles out of town. No actor or spectator was safe, especially during the early days of the Puritan rule. Least of all was there any inspiration for dramatists. In 1660 the Stuart dynasty was restored to the throne of England. Charles II, the king, had been in France during the greater part of the Protectorate, together with many of the royalist party, all of whom were familiar with Paris and its fashions. Thus it was natural, upon the return of the court, that French influence should be felt, particularly in the theater. In August, 1660, Charles issued patents for two companies of players, and performances immediately began. Certain writers, in the field before the civil war, survived the period of theatrical eclipse, and now had their chance. Among these were Thomas Killigrew and William Davenant, who were quickly provided with fine playhouses.<br> It will be remembered that great indignation was
aroused among the English by the appearance of French actresses in 1629. London must have learned to accept this innovation, however, for in one of the semi-private entertainments given during the Protectorate at Rutland House, the actress Mrs. Coleman took the principal part. <i>The Siege of Rhodes</i>, a huge spectacle designed by Davenant in 1656 (arranged in part with a view of evading the restrictions against theatrical plays) is generally noted as marking the entrance of women upon the English stage. It is also remembered for its use of movable machinery, which was something of an innovation. The panorama of <i>The Siege </i>offered five changes of scene, presenting "the fleet of Solyman the Magnificent, his army, the Island of Rhodes, and the varieties attending the siege of the city."<br> By the time the theaters were reopened in England,
讯享网<font size="3" face="Times New Roman">Corneille</font> and <font size="3" face="Times New Roman">Racine</font> in France had established the neo-classic standard for tragedy, and <font size="3" face="Times New Roman">Molière</font> was in the full tide of his success. These playwrights, with Quinault and others, for a time supplied the English with plots. The first French opera, <i>Cadmus and Hermione</i>, by Lully and Quinault, performed in Paris in 1673, crossed the channel almost immediately, influencing Dryden in his attempts at opera. The romantic, semi-historical romances of Madame Scudéry and the Countess de la Fayette afforded a second supply of story material, while Spanish plays and tales opened up still another. Sometimes the plots of <font size="3" face="Times New Roman">Calderón</font> or Lope de Vega came to the English at second-hand through French versions. Whatever the case, it was now evident that the national type of play had ceased to be written. From this time on every European nation was influence by, and exerted an influence upon, the drama of every other nation. Characters, situations, plots, themes--these things traveled from country to country, always modifying and sometimes supplanting the home product.<br> With this influx of foreign drama, there was still a steady
production of the masterpieces of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods. The diarist Samuel Pepys, an ardent lover of the theater, relates that during the first three years after the opening of the playhouses he saw <i>Othello, Henry IV, A Midsummer Night's Dream,</i> two plays by Ben Jonson, and others by Beaumont, Fletcher, Middleton, <font size="3" face="Times New Roman">Shirley</font>, and <font size="3" face="Times New Roman">Massinger</font>. It must have been about this time that the practice of "improving" Shakespeare was begun, and his plays were often altered so as to be almost beyond recognition. From the time of the Restoration actors and managers, also dramatists, were good royalists; and new pieces, or refurbished old ones, were likely to acquire a political slant. The Puritans were satirized, the monarch and his wishes were flattered, and the royal order thoroughly supported by the people of the stage.<br> Richard Boyle, Earl of Orrery (1621-1679), seems to
讯享网have the doubtful glory of re-introducing the use of rhymed verse. Boyle was a statesman, as well as a soldier and a dramatist. During the ten years or so following the Restoration, he wrote at least four tragedies on historical or legendary subjects, using the ten-syllabled rhymed couplet which (at the moment) he borrowed from France. It runs like this:<br>
"Reason's a staff for age, when nature's gone; <br>
讯享网But youth is strong enough to walk alone." <br> No more stilted sort of verse could well be contrived
for dialogue. Monotonous as well as prosy, it was well suited to Orrery's plots. He took a semi-historical story, filled it with bombastic sentiments and strutting figures, producing what was known as "heroic drama." Dryden, who identified himself with this type of play, described it as concerned not with probabilities but with love and valor. A good heroic play is exciting, with perpetual bustle and commotion. The characters are extricated out of their amazing situations only by violence. Deaths are numerous. The more remote and unfamiliar the setting the better; and the speech should be suited to the action: hence the "heroic couplet." Pepys saw <i>Guzman</i>, by Orrery, and with his engaging frankness said it was as mean a thing as had been seen on the stage for a great while.<br> Other writers, Davenant, Etherege, and Sir Robert Howard, had
讯享网also produced specimens of heroic plays, and by the time <i>The Conquest of Granada </i>reached the stage these clever gentlemen had grown tired of the species. Compared to Dryden they were nobodies in the literary world; but among them they contrived a hilarious burlesque called <i>The Rehearsal,</i> in which these showy but shallow productions were smartly ridiculed. Dryden is represented as Bayes (in reference to his position as poet laureate), and his peculiarities of speech and plot are amusingly derided. Though <i>The Rehearsal </i>was condemned as "scurrilous and ill-bred," yet it served a useful turn in puncturing an empty and overblown style.</font></p> <p align="justify" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0"><img border="0" src="http://media4.open.com.cn/l603/dongshi/yingmeiwx/ying/img/logo3.gif"></p> </td>
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